Some cool food storage, food supplies, freeze dried food, frozen food images:

How to make easy Left Over Recipes for the busy person.


Image by Barry Gourmet and Raw
How to make delicious and nutritious left over meals in less than 5 to 10 minutes flat for the busy person? This photo recipe was made only in less than 10 minutes thats good for breakfast ,lunch or dinner and made for 1 or 2 ?

Barry’s Gourmet Tips on fast and efficient food recipe preparations for Food Left Overs: (FLO)
Written by Barry Gourmet & Raw © Copyright October 16, 2011

Introduction to Recipe Food Left Overs: Food for Thought and practical ideas for the Environment & Protection of our Planet Earth!

Hopefully after reading through this article , you may look and think about foods differently then you have previously thought of ? And possible you may decide to implement some of these ideas that I will present to you in this writing?

I will demonstrate the relevancy of this photo of food left overs with the connection of our environment impacting planet Earth today.

In this special report I will show you how to increase your nutritional status and at the same time how to stretch your food bill to save you money. Tips that are practical and easy to do and cost effective for you. I will also demonstrate how our individual food choices and shopping habits create a direct effect on the health of our planet.

All of us are faced sooner or later with this dilemma ? What to do with all the left over food ?
We have many options hear good and bad and I will address many of them in this article.
Since every person has a different taste in foods ,with different shopping habits its fair to say that whats in my refrigerator and kitchen pantry shelves will not be the same as what you have stocked in yours .
So this recipe and the following ideas presented to you will be treated as just a guide to give you some thoughts about how to handle perishables ,and how to come up with your own ideas for individual recipes of your own in creating something from nothing with left overs. You may be surprised at all the options that you have at your disposal , no pun intended.

Recipe ideas that are fast and easy to make , just by working with left over foods that we all have to attend to eventually. Just think of all that accumulated biodegradable human food waste near the end of the fruit or vegetables natural expiry date ? We know that the good guys ,such as living produce foods , do not have a long shelf life so we tend to buy less of them and unfortunately many people will buy much more of the long shelf life packaged process dead foods, (Those are the bad guys)that line most of the grocery store shelves these days.

Subconsciously consumers may feel that by buying a lot of goods and foods in one go will save time money and gas in their vehicle but in reality it may not work out that way at all. Did you know that globally more pollution from world freight transportation ,and storage is produced more from purchasing imported food products than the pollution created from all the cars around the world put together.

So do not feel bad when driving to the store often to buy locally and in season produce ,and locally made processed foods of the country that you live in. Personally I think of most imports as almost a luxury item, with a dark side of the story to it that I will address with you in this writing.
Just do as I do if you can , and buy the imports less often as a last resort and in moderation to save money on your over all food bill .In regards to your health it is fact that all food imports will lose up to 40 percent of their nutritional value compared to your seasonal locally produced foods. Local foods will not be exposed to the same treatments imposed on imports such as Irradiation , Fumigation , Preservatives,and Genetically Modified Organisms, GMO. In addition much of the imported produce is harvested prematurely and picked way to early and un ripe, to make the long journey possible overseas.

So in essence when you support your local organic farmer like at farmers markets ,in purchasing whole plant based foods in the country that you live in ,even with the higher organic price tag on it ,in most cases you still will be saving more of your hard earned currency in the end and your food is cleaner safer and comparatively much higher in nutrition.

The fact is in many cases the processed imported foods are subsidized by the tax money of the country that the food is coming from to compete in price with the locally produced foods in many countries around the world today. But with the cost of packaging shipping storage,oil prices,and retail mark ups the imported food item will still cost you more at the till. It all adds up in the end.

Generally speaking Organic farming practices are more labor intensive and are not government tax payer subsidized in such a high degree as chemical agricultural factory farms. This will reflect on the higher price tag of organic produce , over their conventional chemical farm counter parts.

When you support your local organic farmer with your purchasing power you are making a strong statement that includes the following. (1)You are protecting the top soil , and all the biodiversity of that farms natural environment. (2)You are giving your self higher nutrition , with out the chemical residues found in conventional produce. (3)You are enriching your own garden with safe and clean composted top soil only possible from organically grown produce.(4)You are protecting natures heirloom seeds that unfortunately today are in peril of extinction over time brought on by the bio tech industry.

The one good thing that you can do with your locally produced fruits and vegetables and unfortunately most people don’t think about this to much today, is all the SEED SAVING opportunities that you have .I am not talking about saving seeds from your garden that most all websites are talking about even though you can do this as well ,if you are lucky enough to have enough garden space at your home. I am talking instead of a more direct approach to saving seeds that will add more free foods to your table at no extra cost to you. It just takes a little bit of your spare time to set things up is all that is required.

First it is important to purchase only Organically grown fruits and vegetables for seed saving for the following reasons. This is something they do not want you to know about, but it needs to be told as I believe all consumers have a right to know.

Science knows that plants in nature by design,are very capable of absorbing inorganic minerals through their extensive root systems , and converting the minerals into dietary bioavailable organic minerals starches,carbohydrates,plant enzymes ,cell fibers ,and the green chlorophyl, that would make up the cell walls of the plant through out the stalk , leaves and fruit ,flower and berries. This is the best way for us to get our mineral wealth of nutrition , directly through the plant kingdom and not directly from the ground up rocks or inorganic mineral beds. The Bio Tech industry uses this plant delivery system to gage and to record how much of their chemical pesticide or chemical used to make the plant more pest resistant is taken up through the plants root systems. In other words how much of the pesticide or chemical is the plant absorbing systemically? Most people are under the false impression that the conventionally grown plant only has a residue of chemical that just takes a through rinse and bath to wash off the residues, but this is not true at all. Systemic means that the chemical used is actually absorbed via the plants root systems including the plants cell wall internal parts of the whole plant . So this means that the pesticide toxin becomes actually part of the plant. This is the part that you are not suppose to know, so that said it is always better to buy locally and Organic for your own health
and safety. It is believed by many that systemic insecticides,which poison pollen and nectar in the flowers, may kill bees and other needed pollinators.
With out beneficial insect pollinators like honey bees, butterflies and the like , our fruits and vegetables will not get crossed pollinated like nature intended.
There is a serious shift in world pesticide use from America to developing countries. Currently seventy five percent of all pesticides in the world are now used in developing countries and the use is increasing annually. Of course we know that much of this food is exported back to the US consumer market place.
The problem with agricultural pesticide use is the insidious cycle of the pests built in resistance and ability to mutate , forcing the chemical manufactures to develop even stronger chemicals that on average only has the efficacy of exterminating 2% of the target pest. The whole sale application of these synthetic chemicals take a heavy toll with wind drift, and leaching into our water supply, and assimilating into the fatty tissues of our conventional live stock.
With the lions share of pesticides being used today out side of the United States its really amazing that the Human Health and Environmental cost from pesticide use is a staggering 9.06 Billion US Dollars per year. This is the harm done by agricultural pesticides when broken down into categories reported annually that should raise a few eye brows.

Public Health cost .1 Billion
Pesticide resistance in pests .5 Billion
Crop losses caused by pesticide use 1. 4 Billion
Bird death due to pesticides .2 Billion
Ground Water contamination $ 2.0 Billion
Other associated costs $ 1.4 Billion
Grand total annual cost to the US economy .06 Billion US Dollars

That said if there is any good news to all of this , it is a fact today that the Organic movement in the US is one of the fastest growing sectors with sales increasing substantially every year so people are starting to become informed of their food choices and I find this trend very encouraging for these people.

But still we have a long way to go because globally we are self poisoning our selves , our environment,wild life and its habitat when we as consumers support chemically treated produce. I am not suggesting that we run from our whole living foods to embrace the packaged processed foods ,no way that is the last thing that you should do .
The best thing for your health is to stay on a plant based diet and support your local Organic farmer as much as possible and to save the seeds for sprouting and for planting in your garden. The next best thing is to make a transition over and adapt to a plant based diet even if it includes conventionally sprayed produce . And third stay away from packaged commercially processed foods as much as possible . I am not painting a broad brush across the processes food industry as I do buy a few selected products that are actually healthy and good for you and you can find them in some of my recipes. I plan in the near future to give you my secret short list of processed foods that will help reverse heart disease, increase your metabolism to lose weight, help you with cancer prevention, and to give you many more health benefits that you can utilize in your health program.

Reference wikipedia en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesticide

"For the preservation and protection of our planet earth , our food choices do make a difference"

Barry Gourmet & Raw

And secondly another thing that we are not suppose to know, is the way our foods are treated in overseas retail markets between the more affluent agricultural chemical corporations and much of the third worlds agricultural base. Basically over the years the US Environmental Protection Agency EPA ,has been doing a good job banning many hazardous chemicals from the American market place for public safety which I agree is a good thing. But with all this banned chemical inventory , the manufactures cannot just cut their loses and start over, that would be completely unacceptable to them. So instead they ship all their banned agricultural pesticide chemicals to less developed third world countries for cash crops that in turn are to be exported back to the United States consumer for consumption of their own banned chemical pesticide product that effectively skirts around the EPA,s banned loop hole imposed inside the United States.

One good example , and I am sure that many of the coffee lovers out there will just not want to know about this. But disclosing this information is important for our health and I believe all consumers have a right to know !

According to reports that I read from MSN Health Canada, and the Rodale Organic Institute based in the USA research studies show that the number one imported cash crop for EPA banned chemical pesticide use is you guest it Coffee. Yes coffee crops overseas are sprayed with known toxins that are on the banned chemical list in the USA. And yes they are carcinogenic and take a serious public health toll on people that do not take care of themselves.Studies conclude that Cancer is preventable in most cases.
I know this because I have lived and worked in many third world countries over the years ,especially in the Asian region and I have read several times in the countries newspapers about banned imported agricultural chemicals being found on local produce that should have been used for the export market place instead.

So given the facts , it would be in your best health interest to purchase and drink Organically grown coffee only, even at the higher price tag.It is not cheap for the third world farmer to convert and to make a transition over to organic when the field is by law required to lay fallow and unproductive for 3 years before commencement of organic farm seeding and planting to obtain the Certified Organic label. In Thailand where I live you can enjoy organically grown coffee grown in the hills in the countries northern Chiang Mai province produced by the indigenous hill tribes people that historically grew poppies for the golden triangles drug trade years ago.
I have included for you a free PDF down load that shows the extent of how far a third world country will go to get it right for effective application of chemical pesticides.
PDF Down Load here www.rural21.com/uploads/media/ELR_Agricultural_chemicals_…

References:http://www.urthcaffe.com/organic.html
www.thenibble.com/reviews/nutri/matter/organic-coffee3.asp

Barry’s Gourmet Photo Food Left Overs Ingredients & Method:

First before I start listing the ingredients in this photo it is very important to note that for me the best way to utilize all the perishable vegetables is to make a plan of how you would treat and section them in a tasty and pleasing way.

I like to present the meal as a salad a soup or stew, a raw pudding or dip, and a beverage of tea,broth, or juice so I have options to work with .

In the photo I chose to present a salad ,stew,raw pudding dip, with a broth beverage.

STEW INGREDIENTS :Assortment of root vegetables like carrot ,beat, and turnip.
Legumes such as string bean, sprouted mung and garbanzo (chickpeas)
Some Brown Rice or sprouted wheat berries on hand.
Some cherrie tomato.

SOUP CONDIMENTS for natural flavoring : Dry onion and garlic ,& ground pepper.
I always keep a liquid broth of Shiitake Mushrooms in glass stored in my refrigerator.
Easy to make the soup broth by adding a few dry mushroom caps to a glass jar , fill with pure water seal it securely with the lid and store in the refrigerator.It keeps for a very long time many days as I continue to add water as needed.
For that salty taste for any of the salt lovers out there I use SOLE WATER.
Easy to make just take a pink ( they may be any color) piece of Himalayan Sea Salt crystal ,place it in a glass jar and let the mineral dissolve into the water . Of course different batches will have different salt concentrations so experiment for the taste that you are looking for .
Your other option is granulated sea salt as well. For your health all inorganic salt products should be used sparingly and in moderation only, and I will explained why this matters and address this point in this writing .

VEGETABLE STEW METHOD: Pour in your Mushroom broth ,and add to your liking,dry onion,garlic,and ground pepper. Optional for some people who like it hot and spicy like I do then add some Thai Chili Powder.
then taste the broth as it is heating and then start to make your adjustments. Add some Sole water or sea salt and taste , and if you want it sweeter just add some raw honey or maybe some savory tamarind juice? Tamarind is a long lumpy thin soft but firm thin fruit with a brown shell that can be easily broken with a knife and fingers. The fruit grows in South East Asia and is used in many Thai recipes. Asian stores also sell the raw fruit in different size packages. To make the juice or the sauce is really simple ,just put some in a glass jar ,fill it with pure water , mix it or you can even blend it and store this wonderful condiment in your refrigerator ,it keeps for days. Tamarind sauce or juice is delicious and I use it in all kinds of ways to get that natural sweet sour and tart taste in my foods. If you like the broth more spicy you can add a pinch of Thai Red Chili powder and for curry lovers you could try a bit of curry powder as well. You see how flexible I am with you ? Because not every one will have the same taste in food and really all our taste buds are different even if its subtle. When it comes to food one size does not fit all. Add all your root When your broth finally passes your personal taste test then add all your root vegetables to the broth and let cook on low medium heat do not over cook.
I like my root vegetables a bit soft on the outside but a bit crunchy on the inside ,and make sure before hand that all the pieces are as much as possible the same size for even flavor through out.

SALAD MIX: Any salad greens will do. Including an assortment of leafy greens, celery,fresh green herbs and even a few berries can be used in the salad.Some red bell pepper , a few nuts and any seed that is near by. You can even use presoaked dry fruits in your salad . You see there are no set rules hear , nothing is carved in stone ! You are the Gourmet of your kitchen , and that is the way I like to present many of my recipes to you, so that you can come up with your own creations using my recipe ideas as guides. I do not believe in paint by number recipes , I think creative culinary spontaneity that has surprises along the way ,including the finished main dish is the way to go. But that is just me!

PROTEIN POWDER TOPPING: Seed is better digested when it is Dry Milled to absorb all the essential oils and unsaturated fats.
A good method is to use a dry mill cup that comes with all high quality glass blenders.
Just place the cup on top of the blender unit ,pour in your selected whole dry seeds at any mix that you desire, such as black and white sesame, flax,chia,pumpkin,even a little bit of bee pollen
granules will give some savory sweetness to this protein powder.
Cover with the lid ,turn on the blender and in no time at all you have a very powerful home made protein powder that you can use to sprinkle on your stew and salad.

VINIGARETE :For your tossed salad. For most people a raw salad needs some kind of dressing.
Tip: Sometimes I save and old back some of my smoothie to use as a quick dressing to dress up my food left overs.
For the vinaigrette its fast and simple: One teaspoon of each of the following. Cold pressed Apple Cider Vinegar,fresh Lime or lemon juice, and Raw unfiltered Honey. Optional one grated raw garlic clove. Mix together in a bowl and toss your salad .Then sprinkle your protein powder over top.

Recipe Tip from Barry Gourmet & Raw: Its always easier to get the taste of the broth right first then add the vegetables later ,then to be wrestling with the vegetables in the sauce pan to get the taste right. Also not all the ingredients have to be left over foods , you should and can add some fresh ones into the mix as well.

Turn of the heat and let the flavor of the vegetables steep into the broth for 5 minutes.
Put some boiling water on the stove.
Now strain the liquid broth from the vegetables in your sauce pan into a cup to make your broth beverage and what is left over is your stew.

BARRY’S GOURMET VEGETABLE DIP: While that is going on you can make a simple raw dip or pudding like this!
Take that whole Avocado and de skin it ,discard the pit and with a spoon add the green flesh to your mixing bowl. Add a table spoon of any one of the oils that happen to be in reach and is available to you. Cold pressed Virgin Olive Oil. Cold pressed Coconut Oil, or Cold pressed Flax Seed Oil all organic as much as possible stored in glass or metal.

Mix the oil in and add the following ingredients to taste .Some diced tomatoes,grated garlic, lemon or lime juice,a little bit of raw unfiltered honey , ground pepper and sea salt.
Mix well and put aside.
For a vegetable topping I decided to use fresh broccoli florets , so I cut a few of the flower parts off and placed them in previously boiled water to blanch them.Then I pour a bit of Kikoman Soy Sauce on a plate,then mix in some Wasabi or Mustard powder and with tongs take each broccoli
vegetable out and swish the florets around the dish to cover with the hot and salty sauce . I turn them over and stick them in the my avocado dip and sprinkled with savory bee pollen.

How to share your Left Overs with your Friend for Two?

Of course you may not be alone in the kitchen when all this stuff is going on , and life is all about sharing isn’t it?
An extension of your family will most likely be close by to help you with all this.
Some times we have 2 mouths to feed and your furry friend could be right there johnny on the spot to help you with your left overs.
I am talking about your dog of course !
This is a great opportunity to clean house and to , bond with mans best friend.
Dogs are true omnivores (eating meat and plant ) and Cats are more carnivore (eating mostly meat) so the cat is out of luck this time.

To make a fast and nutritious dog meal for your furry friend just do the following.
Put some of your leafy greens in your blender and if you have some soaked seaweed of any kind stored in your refrigerator add some of that as well .( Seaweed is chalk full of bioavailable minerals and vitamins that you may not find enough in commercial dry dog kibble so go for it.)
Seaweed is a Super Food for both humans and dogs , and this sea vegetable is woefully missing in modern day agriculture. Seaweed is a rich source of the essential trace mineral iodine that is in abundance in this sea vegetable about 5 times more than milk has, with out all the saturated fat.
The essential trace mineral selenium and iodine support each other working together in the body as co factors so it is important to consume foods rich in selenium and iodine together. For example just 2 Brazil nuts a day would provide you more than your RDA of the mineral selenium.
Iodine regulates hormones that are produced by your thyroid gland located in your neck area. Today iodine is put in all of our iodized (sodium chloride) table salt and many processed foods.
But now with the high sodium salt intake in the western diet , more cases of hypertension ,heart disease is on the rise. Seaweed is also high in the mineral sodium with the iodine ,but its organically produced in nature with out the detrimental health effects of the manufactured processed inorganic table salts. Consuming more seaweed of all varieties will help regulate your metabolism ,to help you to all that excess body weight. Seaweed is high in all minerals to support heart health ,where iodized table salt is proven to do just the opposite. With some research we have informed choices that we can make in our lives.

Add some water and blend. The reason that I blend the vegetables for my dog and not serve them chopped is simple. Dogs do not chew their food, like humans can,the canine will bite down and swallow everything whole for digestion to occur in the stomach. Basically a dog drinks and swallows and no chewing of food. And the other reason is many dogs including my own is clever enough to eat around the vegetables to get to the meat first just to leave you with a bowl of uneaten vegetables to clean up.
By contrast humans start with digestion in the mouth to break down complex carbohydrates with the the enzyme amylase , allowing us to chew side to side using the flat molars of our teeth to further break proteins and carbs down producing a food product called chime that finally gets swallowed. This is how we are suppose to eat but today with our busy fast paste life with no time to spare we are starting to eat just like our furry friend does, and this is when we start to get into trouble with our health.
Pour the smoothie into the the dog bowl then sprinkle in some of your seed protein powder and mix it well to form a very nutritious gravy for your dog.
I am sure that we can agree that our dogs protein requirements are much greater than our own, and this is one reason why my dog eats quality proteins from human grade meats and not the carbohydrates and low quality proteins you find in commercially processed dry dog kibble.
Many humans take better care of themselves much more than their own pet and vise versa.
A pet is an extension of our family and all of us should research and find out the truth regarding the politics of food, the business side of food, and the truth about the nutrition of food that goes into our body and even into our pet every day.

I cannot fit all the reasons why I don’t feed commercial Dry Dog kibble to my furry friend named Lucky into this article so I am giving you a link here to find out for yourself to give you more information on the subject at.
:http://www.preciouspets.org/cancer.htm

Stored in the refrigerator I select any one of my previously frozen home made meat packets.
Originally the meat was steamed or boiled. A meat packet could have ingredients like,
Chicken, Liver, Beef, Pork, Duck, Lamb, all mixed with the broth.

If any dog owner is concerned about any cooked bones causing trouble inside the animals larynx or stomach cavity all I can say is my own dog of 7 years never has a problem with this, and did you know that a dogs powerful stomach acids do actually dissolve bones raw or cooked.

Add and stir in your selected meats to your dog bowl and serve. Final note for finicky dogs.
If you are starting out for the first time to help your dog make the transition from devitalized process dry dog foods over to real natures made home made pet food then do it gradually over time.
Dogs are no different than humans when it comes to diet and nutritional changes.
Feed often your human grade meats first using your hand and lead the dog to their bowl and in time your dog will be less finicky with the new natural foods.

From the photo presentation of left over foods I only gave my dog the salad greens and the milled protein powder only. The reason is simple as certain human foods are very dangerous for us to
feed to them and this is why I did not share my root vegetables, avocado and broth that has onions in it. I have a comprehensive food list of what all the human foods that a dog should not eat at the following site at www.flickr.com/photos/54619340@N07/
Just scroll down to the photo that says Barry,s Asian Salmon

I hope that you now see food differently than before , and that you are now thinking about your available options for protection of your good health, and for your pet as well, and for the nutritional support that you can provide for your vibrant good health.

“ Nature does not care what we think, what we do with our lives, or how much money it can get from us .Nature is there for us to connect with and to enjoy her gift of seed baring foods ,to work with her sustainably, she has been around a lot longer then we have,Earth Matters.’"

Barry Gourmet & Raw

Meat


Image by Joost J. Bakker IJmuiden
Meat
Meat is animal flesh that is used as food. Most often, this means the skeletal muscle and associated fat, but it may also describe other edible tissues such as organs, livers, skin, brains, bone marrow, kidneys, or lungs. The word meat is also used by the meat packing industry in a more restrictive sense—the flesh of mammalian species (pigs, cattle, lambs, etc.) raised and prepared for human consumption, to the exclusion of fish and poultry.

Etymology
The word meat comes from the Old English word mete, which referred to food in general. The term is related to mad in Danish, mat in Swedish and Norwegian, and matur in Icelandic, which also mean ‘food’. The word "mete" also exists in Old Frisian (and to a lesser extent, modern West Frisian) to denote important food, differentiating it from "swiets" (sweets) and "dierfied" (animal feed).

One definition that refers to meat as not including fish developed over the past few hundred years and has religious influences. The distinction between fish and "meat" is codified by the Jewish dietary law of kashrut, regarding the mixing of milk and meat, which does not forbid the mixing of milk and fish. Modern Jewish legal practice (halakha) on kashrut classifies the flesh of both mammals and birds as "meat"; fish are considered to be parve, neither meat nor a dairy food. The Catholic dietary restriction on "meat" on Fridays also does not apply to the cooking and eating of fish.

The Latin word carō "meat" (also the root of ‘carnal’, referring to the ‘pleasures of the flesh’) is often a euphemism for sexual pleasure, effected from the function performed by fleshy organs. Thus ‘meat’ may refer to the human body in a sensual, or sexual, connotation. A meat market, in addition to simply denoting a market where meat is sold, also refers to a place or situation where humans are treated or viewed as commodities, especially a place known as one where a sexual partner may be found.

"Meat" may also be used to refer to humans humorously or indifferently. In military slang, "meat shield" refers to soldiers sent towards an enemy to draw fire away from another unit

History
Meat constituted a substantial proportion of even the earliest humans’ diet, paleontological evidence suggests. Early hunter-gatherers depended on the organized hunting of large animals such as bison and deer.

The domestication of animals, of which we have evidence dating back to the end of the last glacial period (c. 10,000 years BP), allowed the systematic production of meat and the breeding of animals with a view to improving meat production. The animals which are now the principal sources of meat were domesticated in conjunction with the development of early civilizations:

Sheep, originating from western Asia, were domesticated with the help of dogs prior to the establishment of settled agriculture, likely as early as the eighth millennium BC. Several breeds of sheep were established in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt by 3500–3000 BC. Presently, more than 200 sheep breeds exist.
Cattle were domesticated in Mesopotamia after settled agriculture was established about 5000 BC, and several breeds were established by 2500 BC. Modern domesticated cattle fall into the groups Bos taurus (European cattle) and Bos indicus (zebu), both descended from the now-extinct Aurochs. The breeding of beef cattle, cattle optimized for meat production as opposed to animals best suited for draught or dairy purposes, began in the middle of the 18th century.
Domestic pigs, which are descended from wild boars, are known to have existed about 2500 BC in modern-day Hungary and in Troy; earlier pottery from Jericho and Egypt depicts wild pigs. Pork sausages and hams were of great commercial importance in Greco-Roman times. Pigs continue to be bred intensively as they are being optimized to produce meat best suited for specific meat products.
Modern agriculture employs a number of techniques, such as progeny testing, to make animals evolve rapidly towards having the qualities desired by meat producers. For instance, in the wake of well-publicised health concerns associated with saturated fats in the 1980s, the fat content of UK beef, pork and lamb fell from 20–26 percent to 4–8 percent within a few decades, both due to selective breeding for leanness and changed methods of butchery.Methods of genetic engineering aimed at improving the meat production qualities of animals are now also becoming available.

Even though it is a very old industry, meat production continues to be shaped strongly by the rapidly evolving demands of customers. The trend towards selling meat in pre-packaged cuts has increased the demand for larger breeds of cattle, which are better suited to producing such cuts. Ever more animals not previously exploited for their meat are now being farmed, especially the more agile and mobile species, whose muscles tend to be developed better than those of cattle, sheep or pigs. Examples include the various antelope species, the zebra, water buffalo and camel, as well as non-mammals such as the crocodile, emu and ostrich. Another important trend in contemporary meat production is organic farming which, while providing no organoleptic benefit to meat so produced, meets an increasing demand for numerous reasons.

Growth and development of meat animals

Genetics
Several economically important traits in meat animals are heritable to some degree (see the table to the right) and can thus be selected for by breeding. In cattle, certain growth features are controlled by recessive genes which have not so far been controlled, complicating breeding. One such trait is dwarfism; another is the doppelender or "double muscling" condition, which causes muscle hypertrophy and thereby increases the animal’s commercial value. Genetic analysis continues to reveal the genetic mechanisms that control numerous aspects of the endocrine system and, through it, meat growth and quality.

Genetic engineering techniques can shorten breeding programmes significantly because they allow for the identification and isolation of genes coding for desired traits, and for the reincorporation of these genes into the animal genome.[18] To enable such manipulation, research is ongoing (as of 2006[update]) to map the entire genome of sheep, cattle and pigs. Some research has already seen commercial application. For instance, a recombinant bacterium has been developed which improves the digestion of grass in the rumen of cattle, and some specific features of muscle fibres have been genetically altered.
Experimental reproductive cloning of commercially important meat animals such as sheep, pig or cattle has been successful. The multiple asexual reproduction of animals bearing desirable traits can thus be anticipated,although this is not yet practical on a commercial scale.
Environment
Heat regulation in livestock is of great economic significance, because mammals attempt to maintain a constant optimal body temperature. Low temperatures tend to prolong animal development and high temperatures tend to retard it. Depending on their size, body shape and insulation through tissue and fur, some animals have a relatively narrow zone of temperature tolerance and others (e.g. cattle) a broad one. Static magnetic fields, for reasons still unknown, also retard animal development.

Nutrition
The quality and quantity of usable meat depends on the animal’s plane of nutrition, i.e., whether it is over- or underfed. Scientists disagree, however, about how exactly the plane of nutrition influences carcass composition.

The composition of the diet, especially the amount of protein provided, is also an important factor regulating animal growth. Ruminants, which may digest cellulose, are better adapted to poor-quality diets, but their ruminal microorganisms degrade high-quality protein if supplied in excess. Because producing high-quality protein animal feed is expensive (see also Environmental impact below), several techniques are employed or experimented with to ensure maximum utilization of protein. These include the treatment of feed with formalin to protect amino acids during their passage through the rumen, the recycling of manure by feeding it back to cattle mixed with feed concentrates, or the partial conversion of petroleum hydrocarbons to protein through microbial action.

In plant feed, environmental factors influence the availability of crucial nutrients or micronutrients, a lack or excess of which can cause a great many ailments. In Australia, for instance, where the soil contains limited phosphate, cattle are being fed additional phosphate to increase the efficiency of beef production. Also in Australia, cattle and sheep in certain areas were often found losing their appetite and dying in the midst of rich pasture; this was at length found to be a result of cobalt deficiency in the soil. Plant toxins are also a risk to grazing animals; for instance, fluoracetate, found in some African and Australian plants, kills by disrupting the cellular metabolism.[25] Certain man-made pollutants such as methylmercury and some pesticide residues present a particular hazard due to their tendency to bioaccumulate in meat, potentially poisoning consumers.

Human intervention
Meat producers may seek to improve the fertility of female animals through the administration of gonadotrophic or ovulation-inducing hormones. In pig production, sow infertility is a common problem, possibly due to excessive fatness. No methods currently exist to augment the fertility of male animals. Artificial insemination is now routinely used to produce animals of the best possible genetic quality, and the efficiency of this method is improved through the administration of hormones that synchronize the ovulation cycles within groups of females.

Growth hormones, particularly anabolic agents such as steroids, are used in some countries to accelerate muscle growth in animals. This practice has given rise to the beef hormone controversy, an international trade dispute. It may also decrease the tenderness of meat, although research on this is inconclusive,[30] and have other effects on the composition of the muscle flesh. Where castration is used to improve control over male animals, its side effects are also counteracted by the administration of hormones.

Sedatives may be administered to animals to counteract stress factors and increase weight gain. The feeding of antibiotics to certain animals has been shown to improve growth rates also. This practice is particularly prevalent in the USA, but has been banned in the EU, partly because it causes antibiotic resistance in pathogenic microorganisms.

Biochemical composition
Numerous aspects of the biochemical composition of meat vary in complex ways depending on the species, breed, sex, age, plane of nutrition, training and exercise of the animal, as well as on the anatomical location of the musculature involved. Even between animals of the same litter and sex there are considerable differences in such parameters as the percentage of intramuscular fat.

Main constituents
Adult mammalian muscle flesh consists of roughly 75 percent of water, 19 percent of protein, 2.5 percent of intramuscular fat, 1.2 percent of carbohydrates and 2.3 percent of other soluble non-protein substances. These include nitrogenous compounds, such as amino acids, and inorganic substances such as minerals.

Muscle proteins are either soluble in water (sarcoplasmic proteins, about 11.5 percent of total muscle mass) or in concentrated salt solutions (myofibrillar proteins, about 5.5 percent of mass).[36] There are several hundred sarcoplasmic proteins. Most of them – the glycolytic enzymes – are involved in the glycolytic pathway, i.e., the conversion of stored energy into muscle power. The two most abundant myofibrillar proteins, myosin and actin, are responsible for the muscle’s overall structure. The remaining protein mass consists of connective tissue (collagen and elastin) as well as organelle tissue.

Fat in meat can be either adipose tissue, used by the animal to store energy and consisting of "true fats" (esters of glycerol with fatty acids),[40] or intramuscular fat, which contains considerable quantities of phospholipids and of unsaponifiable constituents such as cholesterol.

Red and white meat
Meat can be broadly classified as "red" or "white" depending on the concentration of myoglobin in muscle fibre. When myoglobin is exposed to oxygen, reddish oxymyoglobin develops, making myoglobin-rich meat appear red. The redness of meat depends on species, animal age, and fibre type: Red meat contains more narrow muscle fibres that tend to operate over long periods without rest, while white meat contains more broad fibres that tend to work in short fast bursts.

The meat of adult mammals such as cows, sheep, goats, and horses is generally considered red, while domestic chicken and turkey breast meat is generally considered white.

Production
Main articles: Animal slaughter, Slaughterhouse, and Butchery
Meat is produced by killing the animal in question and cutting the desired flesh out of it. These procedures are called slaughter and butchery, respectively.

Attesting to the long history of meat consumption in human civilizations, ritual slaughter has become part of the practice of several religions. These rituals, as well as other pre-industrial meat production methods such as these used by indigenous peoples, are not detailed here. This section will instead provide an overview of contemporary industrialized meat production in dedicated slaughterhouses from cattle, sheep and pigs.

Transport
Upon reaching a predetermined age or weight, livestock are transported en masse from the farm to the slaughterhouse, a process called "live export". Depending on its length and circumstances, this exerts stress and injuries on the animals, and some may die en route. Apart from being arguably inhumane, unnecessary stress in transport may adversely affect the quality of the meat. In particular, the muscles of stressed animals are low in water and glycogen, and their pH fails to attain acidic values, all of which results in poor meat quality. Consequently, and also due to campaigning by animal welfare groups, laws and industry practices in several countries tend to become more restrictive with respect to the duration and other circumstances of livestock transports.

Slaughter
Animals are slaughtered by being first stunned and then exsanguinated (bled out). Death results from the one or the other procedure, depending on the methods employed. Stunning can be effected through asphyxiating the animals with carbon dioxide, shooting them with a gun or a captive bolt pistol, or shocking them with electric current. In most forms of ritual slaughter, stunning is not allowed.

Draining as much blood as possible from the carcase is necessary because blood causes the meat to have an unappealing appearance and is a very good breeding ground for microorganisms.[45] The exsanguination is accomplished by severing the carotid artery and the jugular vein in cattle and sheep, and the anterior vena cava in pigs.
Dressing and cutting
After exsanguination, the carcass is dressed, that is, the head, feet, hide (except hogs and some veal), excess fat, viscera and offal are removed, leaving only bones and edible muscle. Cattle and pig carcases, but not those of sheep, are then split in half along the mid ventral axis, and the carcase is cut into wholesale pieces. The dressing and cutting sequence, long a province of manual labor, is progressively being fully automated.

Conditioning
Under hygienic conditions and without other treatment, meat can be stored at above its freezing point (–1.5 °C) for about six weeks without spoilage, during which time it undergoes an aging process that increases its tenderness and flavor.

During the first day after death, glycolysis continues until the accumulation of lactic acid causes the pH to reach about 5.5. The remaining glycogen, about 18 g per kg, is believed to increase the water-holding capacity and tenderness of the flesh when cooked. Rigor mortis sets in a few hours after death as ATP is used up, causing actin and myosin to combine into rigid actomyosin and lowering the meat’s water-holding capacity,[50] causing it to lose water ("weep"). In muscles that enter rigor in a contracted position, actin and myosin filaments overlap and cross-bond, resulting in meat that is tough on cooking – hence again the need to prevent pre-slaughter stress in the animal.

Over time, the muscle proteins denature in varying degree, with the exception of the collagen and elastin of connective tissue, and rigor mortis resolves. Because of these changes, the meat is tender and pliable when cooked just after death or after the resolution of rigor, but tough when cooked during rigor. As the muscle pigment myoglobin denatures, its iron oxidates, which may cause a brown discoloration near the surface of the meat. Ongoing proteolysis also contributes to conditioning. Hypoxanthine, a breakdown product of ATP, contributes to the meat’s flavor and odor, as do other products of the discomposition of muscle fat and protein.

Spoilage and preservation
Main articles: Meat spoilage and Meat preservation
The spoilage of meat occurs, if untreated, in a matter of hours or days and results in the meat becoming unappetizing, poisonous or infectious. Spoilage is caused by the practically unavoidable infection and subsequent decomposition of meat by bacteria and fungi, which are borne by the animal itself, by the people handling the meat, and by their implements. Meat can be kept edible for a much longer time – though not indefinitely – if proper hygiene is observed during production and processing, and if appropriate food safety, food preservation and food storage procedures are applied.

Methods of preparation
Meat is prepared in many ways, as steaks, in stews, fondue, or as dried meat like beef jerky. It may be ground then formed into patties (as hamburgers or croquettes), loaves, or sausages, or used in loose form (as in "sloppy joe" or Bolognese sauce). Some meat is cured, by smoking, pickling, preserving in salt or brine (see salted meat and curing). Other kinds of meat are marinated and barbecued, or simply boiled, roasted, or fried. Meat is generally eaten cooked, but there are many traditional recipes that call for raw beef, veal or fish (tartare). Meat is often spiced or seasoned, as in most sausages. Meat dishes are usually described by their source (animal and part of body) and method of preparation.

Meat is a typical base for making sandwiches. Popular varieties of sandwich meat include ham, pork, salami and other sausages, and beef, such as steak, roast beef, corned beef, and pastrami. Meat can also be molded or pressed (common for products that include offal, such as haggis and scrapple) and canned.

Nutritional benefits and concerns

All muscle tissue is very high in protein, containing all of the essential amino acids, and in most cases is a good source of zinc, vitamin B12, selenium, phosphorus, niacin, vitamin B6, iron and riboflavin. Several forms of meat are high in vitamin K2, which is only otherwise known to be found in fermented foods[citation needed], with natto having the highest concentration. Muscle tissue is very low in carbohydrates and does not contain dietary fiber. The fat content of meat can vary widely depending on the species and breed of animal, the way in which the animal was raised, including what it was fed, the anatomical part of the body, and the methods of butchering and cooking. Wild animals such as deer are typically leaner than farm animals, leading those concerned about fat content to choose game such as venison. Decades of breeding meat animals for fatness is being reversed by consumer demand for meat with less fat.

Red meat, such as beef, pork, and lamb, contains many essential nutrients necessary for healthy growth and development in children. Nutrients in red meat include iron, zinc, vitamin B12, and protein. Most meats contain a full complement of the amino acids required for the human diet. Fruits and vegetables, by contrast, are usually lacking several essential amino acids contained in meat. It is for this reason that people who abstain from eating all meat need to plan their diet carefully to include sources of all the necessary amino acids.

The table in this section compares the nutritional content of several types of meat. While each kind of meat has about the same content of protein and carbohydrates, there is a very wide range of fat content. It is the additional fat that contributes most to the calorie content of meat, and to concerns about dietary health.

In recent years, health concerns have been raised about the consumption of meat. In a large-scale study, the consumption of red meat over a lifetime was found to raise the risk of cancer by 20 to 60 percent[citation needed], while causing adverse mutations in DNA. In particular, red meat and processed meat were found to be associated with higher risk of cancers of the lung, esophagus, liver, and colon, among others.[59] Another study found an increase risk of pancreatic cancer for red meat and pork.[60] That study also suggests that fat and saturated fat are not likely contributors to pancreatic cancer. Animal fat, particularly from ruminants, tends to have a higher percentage of saturated fat vs. monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fat when compared to vegetable fats, with the exception of some tropical plant fats;[61] consumption of which has been correlated with various health problems. The saturated fat found in meat has been associated with significantly raised risks of colon cancer, although evidence suggests that risks of prostate cancer are unrelated to animal fat consumption.

Meat has been correlated to increased risk of heart disease. The risks of heart disease are three times greater for 45-64 year old men who eat meat daily, versus those who did not eat meat, according to one survey.

A 2009 study by the National Cancer Institute revealed a correlation between the consumption of red meat and increased mortality from cancer and cardiovascular diseases. This study has been criticized for using an improperly validated food frequency questionnaire, which has been shown to have low levels of accuracy [68][69]

In response to changing prices as well as health concerns about saturated fat and cholesterol, consumers have altered their consumption of various meats. A USDA report points out that consumption of beef in the United States between 1970–1974 and 1990–1994 dropped by 21%, while consumption of chicken increased by 90%. During the same period of time, the price of chicken dropped by 14% relative to the price of beef. In 1995 and 1996, beef consumption increased due to higher supplies and lower prices.

Cooking meat
Meat, like any food, can also transmit certain diseases, but complete cooking and avoiding recontamination reduces this possibility.

Several studies published since 1990 indicate that cooking muscle meat creates heterocyclic amines (HCAs), which are thought to increase cancer risk in humans. Researchers at the National Cancer Institute published results of a study which found that human subjects who ate beef rare or medium-rare had less than one third the risk of stomach cancer than those who ate beef medium-well or well-done.[70] While eating muscle meat raw may be the only way to avoid HCAs fully, the National Cancer Institute states that cooking meat below 212 °F (100 °C) creates "negligible amounts" of HCAs. Also, microwaving meat before cooking may reduce HCAs by 90%.

Nitrosamines, present in processed and cooked foods, have been noted as being carcinogenic, being linked to colon cancer. Also, toxic compounds called PAHs, or Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, present in processed, smoked and cooked foods, are known to be carcinogenic.

Ethics of eating meat

Ethical issues regarding the consumption of meat can include objections to the act of killing animals or the agricultural practices surrounding the production of meat. Reasons for objecting to the practice of killing animals for consumption may include animal rights, environmental ethics, religious doctrine, or an aversion to inflicting pain or harm on other living creatures. The religion of Jainism has always opposed eating meat, and there are also many schools of Buddhism and Hinduism that condemn the eating of meat. Some people, while not vegetarians, refuse to eat the flesh of certain animals, such as cats, dogs, horses, or rabbits, due to cultural or religious taboo. In some cases, specific meats (especially from pigs and cows) are forbidden within religious traditions. Some people eat only the flesh of animals which they believe have not been mistreated, and abstain from the meat of animals reared in factory farms or from particular products such as foie gras and veal

In vitro and imitation

Various forms of imitation meat have been created to satisfy people wishing to reduce or eliminate their meat consumption and still taste the flavor and texture of meat. They are typically some form of processed soybean, (tofu, tempeh), but they can also be based on wheat gluten or even fungus (quorn).

in vitro meat also known as cultured meat, is animal flesh that has never been part of a complete, living animal. Several research projects are currently experimentally growing in vitro meat, but no meat has yet been produced for public consumption. In vitro meat consists of natural meat cells and should be seen as a possible way of producing normal meat in a much healthier, safer and environmental way. The goal is to grow fully developed muscle organs, but the first generation will most likely be minced meat products.

Environmental impact
The UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has estimated that direct emissions from meat production account for about 18% of the world’s total greenhouse gas emissions. The FAO figure accounts for the entire meat production cycle – clearing forested land, making and transporting fertiliser, burning fossil fuels in agricultural machinery, and the front and rear end emissions of cattle and sheep.

Animals fed on grain need more water than grain crops.[citation needed] In tracking food animal production from the feed through to the dinner table, the inefficiencies of grain fed meat, milk and egg production range from a 4:1 energy input to protein output ratio up to 54:1. The result is that producing grain fed animal-based food is typically much less efficient than the harvesting of grains, vegetables, legumes, seeds, and fruits. Environmental impact of grass grazing meat compared to agronomy would be a much more difficult comparison. The two modes of food production are not always in direct competition because non-arable land may be suitable for grazing and difficult to make arable

Mature fruit and leaves of Ficus carica, Fig, Common Fig…Trái chín và lá của cây Sung ngọt, Sung Mỹ…


Image by Vietnam Plants / Cây cỏ Vietnam
Khi còn ở VietNam, tôi được biết thành phố Đà Lạt đã nhập loại Sung này trồng để làm mứt
khô và mứt nhão ( jam ), nhưng không biết đến nay việc này vẫn còn phát triển hay không . Ở Mỹ mứt Sung này rất là mắc cho dù loại khô hay loại mứt nhão . Một bich chừng 200 gram mứt khô có giá hơn 10 đô la Mỹ.

Tôi đã ăn trái Sung ngọt này từ khi còn thơ ấu, mỗi lần ba ghẻ tôi trở lại từ Mỹ đều mua Sung khô hay mứt Sung cho tôi , vừa thơm vừa ngọt tới cổ họng luôn, hơi thở cũng thơm mùi Sung giống như bạn ăn Mít hay Sầu riêng vậy . Khi nào mua được nhà tôi sẽ trồng cây Sung này. Tôi chụp hình cây Sung này trước một ngôi nhà ở trung tâm Charleston, gần bên bệnh viện Mắt của thành phố, thuộc bang West Virginia.

I ‘ve tasted Ficus carica’s fruits since I was a kid, every time my step-father came back VietNam from California ( America ), he used to buy dried fruits and jam bottles of Ficus carica ( which they made from ripened fruits ). The good and sweet smelt of fruits came into my heart since there , even my best step-dad was gone …..

Vietnamese named : Sung, Sung ngọt, Sung Mỹ.
Common names : Common Figs
Scientist name : Ficus carica L.
Synonyms :
Family : Moraceae. Họ Dâu Tằm
Kingdom:Plantae
(unranked):Angiosperms
(unranked):Eudicots
(unranked):Rosids
Order:Rosales
Tribe:Ficeae
Genus:Ficus
Subgenus:Ficus
Species:F. carica

Links :

**** plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=FICA

**** www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/fig.html

While the ancient history of the fig centers around the Mediterranean region, and it is most commonly cultivated in mild-temperate climates, it nevertheless has its place in tropical and subtropical horticulture. Botanically identified as Ficus carica L. (family Moraceae), it is unique in a genus embracing perhaps over 1,000 species, mostly giant "rubber trees", and mostly tropical. It is almost universally known simply as fig, common fig, or edible fig. The name is very similar in French (figue), German (feige), Italian and Portuguese (figo). In Spanish it is higo or brevo. Haitians give it the name, figue France, to distinguish it from the small, dried bananas called "figs".

Plate V: FIG, Ficus carica Description

The fig is a tree of small dimensions, 10 to 30 ft (3-9 m) high, with numerous spreading branches and a trunk rarely more than 7 in (17.5 cm) in diameter. It contains copious milky latex. The root system is typically shallow and spreading, sometimes covering 50 ft (15 m) of ground, but in permeable soil some of the roots may descend to 20 ft (6 m). The deciduous leaves are palmate, deeply divided into 3 to 7 main lobes, these more shallowly lobed and irregularly toothed on the margins. The blade is up to 10 in (25 cm) in length and width, fairly thick, rough on the upper surface, softly hairy on the underside. What is commonly accepted as a "fruit" is technically a synconium, that is, a fleshy, hollow receptacle with a small opening at the apex partly closed by small scales. It may be obovoid, turbinate, or pear-shaped, 1 to 4 in (2.5-10 cm) long, and varies in color from yellowish-green to coppery, bronze, or dark-purple. Tiny flowers are massed on the inside wall. In the case of the common fig discussed here, the flowers are all female and need no pollination. There are 3 other types, the ”Caprifig” which has male and female flowers requiring visits by a tiny wasp, Blastophaga grossorum; the "Smyrna" fig, needing crosspollination by Caprifigs in order to develop normally; and the "San Pedro" fig which is intermediate, its first crop independent like the common fig, its second crop dependent on pollination. The skin of the fig is thin and tender, the fleshy wall is whitish, pale-yellow, or amber, or more or less pink, rose, red or purple; juicy and sweet when ripe, gummy with latex when unripe. Seeds may be large, medium, small or minute and range in number from 30 to 1,600 per fruit.

Origin and Distribution

The fig is believed to be indigenous to Western Asia and to have been distributed by man throughout the Mediterranean area. It has been cultivated for thousands of years, remnants of figs having been found in excavations of Neolithic sites traced to at least 5,000 B.C. As time went on, the fig-growing territory stretched from Afghanistan to southern Germany and the Canary Islands. Pliny was aware of 29 types. Figs were introduced into England some time between 1525 and 1548. It is not clear when the common fig entered China but by 1550 it was reliably reported to be in Chinese gardens. European types were taken to China, Japan, India, South Africa and Australia.

The first figs in the New World were planted in Mexico in 1560. Figs were introduced into California when the San Diego Mission was established in 1769. Later, many special varieties were received from Europe and the eastern United States where the fig reached Virginia in 1669. The Smyrna fig was brought to California in 1881-82 but it was not until 1900 that the wasp was introduced to serve as the pollinating agent and make commercial fig culture possible. From Virginia, fig culture spread to the Carolinas, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas. The tree was planted in Bermuda in early times and was common around Bahamian plantations in Colonial days. It became a familiar dooryard plant in the West Indies, and at medium and low altitudes in Central America and northern South America. There are fair-sized plantations on mountainsides of Honduras and at low elevations on the Pacific side of Costa Rica. From Florida to northern South America and in India only the common fig is grown. Chile and Argentina grow the types suited to cooler zones.

In Venezuela, the fig is one of the fruits in greatest demand by fruit processors. Because of the inadequate supply, a program was launched in 1960 to encourage commercial plantings. In 1976, fresh figs were regarded as highly desirable luxuries and were selling for .35 to .25 per lb (-/kg) in Colombia. The Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario had realized some years earlier that fig growing should be encouraged and had established an experimental plantation in 1973. The results were so favorable that they circulated an advisory bulletin to farmers in 1977, including improved methods of cultivation, costs of production and potential revenue.

Varieties

There are many cultivated varieties in each class of figs. In fact, over 700 varietal names are in use but many are synonyms. Here we need only present those that are suited to warm areas and do not require pollination. Most popular among these are ‘Celeste’ and ‘Brown Turkey’, followed by ‘Brunswick’ and ‘Marseilles’, described as follows:

‘Celeste’—pear-shaped, ribbed, sometimes with a short neck and slender stalk to 3/4 in (2 cm) long; the eye (opening at apex) is closed; the fruit is small to medium; the skin purplish-brown or bronze tinged with purple and covered with bloom; the pulp whitish or pinkish amber, of rich flavor and good quality; almost seedless. Main crop is heavy but of short duration. There is rarely an early, "breba", crop.

‘Brown Turkey’—broad-pyriform, usually without neck; medium to large; copper-colored; pulp is whitish shading to pink or light red; of good to very good quality; with few seeds. The tree is prolific. The main crop, beginning in mid-July, is large; the early, breba, crop is small. This cultivar is well adapted to warm climates. It is grown on all the islands of Hawaii.

‘Brunswick’ (‘Magnolia’)—leaves narrow-lobed; fruits of main crop are oblique-turbinate, mostly without neck; fruit stalk thick, often swollen; fruit of medium size; bronze or purple-brown; pulp whitish near skin, shading to pink or amber; hollow in center; of fair to good quality; nearly seedless. Ripens over a long season. Breba crop poor; large, bronze-skinned; flesh light-red; coarse.

‘Marseilles’ (‘White Marseilles’, or ‘Lemon’)—fruits of main crop round to oblate without neck; on slender stalks to 1/4 in (6 mm) long; of medium size. Those of breba crop, turbinate with short, thick neck and short stalk; yellow-green with small green flecks; pulp white, sweet; seeds large, conspicuous. Of fair quality.

In Queensland, ‘Brown Turkey’, ‘Adriatic’, ‘Genoa’ and ‘Purple Genoa’ perform very well.

‘Adriatic’ (‘White Adriatic’, or ‘Grosse Verte’)—turbinate with short, thick neck and short stalk; above medium size; green to yellowish-green with red pulp; of distinctive flavor and very good quality. In early, minor, breba crop the fruits are oblique-pyriform, large, green, often tinged with purplish-red with dark-red pulp and strong flavor.

‘Genoa’ (‘White Genoa’)—pyriform or turbinate, very faintly ribbed; neck thick and short, or absent; above medium in size; skin downy, greenish-yellow; pulp greenish-white near skin, mostly amber tinged with red; hollow; of fair quality. Fruits of breba crop oblique-obovate with thick neck and short stalk; yellowish-green externally; pulp light-red; of fair to good quality.

‘Purple Genca’ (‘Black Genoa’; ‘Black Spanish’) oblong, broad at apex, narrow at base; large; very dark-purple with thick blue bloom; pulp yellowish becoming reddish to red at the center; juicy, with sweet, rich flavor.

At Saharanpur, India, ‘Brown Turkey’, ‘Bangalore’, ‘Black Ischia’ and ‘Lucknow’ are successfully grown. Around Bombay, there is only one variety, ‘Poona’.

‘Black Ischia’ (‘Blue Ischia’)—an Italian variety; main crop is elongated pear shaped with many noticeable rlbs; short neck and short to medium stalk; large, 2 1/2 in (6.35 cm) long and 1 1/2 in (3.8 cm) wide; dark purple-black except at the apex where it is lighter and greenish; there are many golden flecks; skin is wholly coated with thin, dark-blue bloom; eye open, with red-violet scales; pulp is violet-red, of good quality. In the breba crop, there are few rlbs and mostly indistinct; the fruit is small, about 1 1/2 in (3.8 cm) long and of the same width at the apex; the pulp is red to greenish-amber; of poor flavor. The tree is particularly ornamental and the leaves are glossy, only shallowly 3 lobed. A heavy bearer.

‘Poona’-bell-shaped, of medium size, weighing about 1 1/2 oz (42 g); thin-skinned; light-purple with red flesh, of sweet, good flavor.

We have no descriptions of ‘Bangalore’ and ‘Lucknow’.

Climate

In southern India, ‘Marseilles’ flourishes on hills above 5,000 ft (1,525 m). In tropical areas generally, figs thrive between 2,600 and 5,900 ft (800-1,800 m). The tree can tolerate 10° to 20° of frost in favorable sites. It should have a dry climate with light early spring rains if it is intended for the production of fresh fruit. Rains during fruit development and ripening are detrimental to the crop, causing the fruits to split. The semi arid tropical and subtropical regions of the world are ideal for fig-growing if means of irrigation are available. But very hot, dry spells will cause fruit-drop even if the trees are irrigated.

Soil

The fig can be grown on a wide range of soils; light sand, rich loam, heavy clay or limestone, providing there is sufficient depth and food drainage. Sandy soil that is medium-dry and contains a good deal of lime is preferred when the crop is intended for drying. Highly acid soils are unsuitable. The pH should be between 6.0 and 6.5. The tree is fairly tolerant of moderate salinity.

Propagation

Fig trees have been raised from seed, even seed extracted from commercial dried fruits. Ground- or air-layering can be done satisfactorily, and rapid mass multiplication by tissue culture has been achieved in Greece, but the tree is commonly propagated by cuttings of mature wood 2 to 3 years of age, 1/2 to 3/4 in (1.25-2 cm) thick and 8 to 12 in (20-30 cm) long. Planting must be done within 24 hours but, first, the upper, slanting end of the cutting should be treated with a sealant to protect it from disease, and the lower, flat, end with a root-promoting hormone. Trees of unsatisfactory varieties can be topworked by shield- or patch-budding, or cleft- or bark-grafting.

Culture

Cuttings are raised in nursery beds and are set out in the field after 12 or 15 months. They may be spaced from 6 to 25 ft (1.8-7.5 m) apart depending on the cultivar and the fertility of the soil. A spacing of 13 x 13 ft (4×4 m) allows 260 trees/acre (625 trees/ha). In Colombia, growers are advised to set the trees at 10 x 10 ft (3×3 m) on level land, 10 x 13 ft (3×4 m) on slopes. Fruiting will commence in less than a year from planting out. Young plants will benefit from shading with palm fronds or other material until they are well established. A fertilizer formula of 10-30-10 or 10-20-20 NPK is recommended 2 oz (about 60 g) each for young plants and 1/5 lb (100 g) each for adults, plus minor elements at the rate of 1 oz (30 g) per tree every 6 months.

Fig trees are cut back severely in fall or winter, depending on whether the crop is desired the following summer or fall. Branches are often notched to induce lateral branching and increase the yield. If there are heavy rains, drainage ditches should be dug to prevent water-logging. Fig trees remain productive up to 12 or 15 years of age and thereafter the crop declines though the trees may live to a very advanced age.

Season

Fig trees usually bear 2 crops a year, the early season ("breba") fruits being inferior and frequently too acid, and only those of the second, or main, crop of actual value.

In Colombia and Venezuela, some fruits are borne throughout the year but there are 2 principal crops, one in May and June and the other in December and January.

Large-scale fig producers in California spray ethephon to speed up ripening and then wind-machines are drawn past the trees or helicopter overflights are made to hasten fruit drop, thus shortening the harvest period by as much as 10 days in order to avoid impending rain and insect attack. Proper timing of the growth regulator is crucial to fruit quality.

Harvesting and Yield

The fruits may be picked from the tree or gathered normally or by mechanical sweepers after they fall to the ground. ‘Brunswick’ is so tender it must be picked when slightly unripe in order to be firm enough for processing. Workers must wear gloves and protective clothing because of the latex. Harvested fruits are spread out in the shade for a day so that the latex will dry a little. Then they are transported to processing plants in wooden boxes holding 22 to 33 lbs (10-15 kg). In India, a fig tree bears 180 to 360 fruits per year. Venezuelan growers expect 132 to 176 lbs (6-8 kg) per tree.

Keeping Quality

Fresh figs are very perishable. At 40° to 43°F (4.44°-6.11°C) and 75% relative humidity, figs remain in good condition for 8 days but have a shelf life of only 1 to 2 days when removed from storage. At 50°F (10°C) and relative humidity of 85%, figs can be kept no longer than 21 days. They remain in good condition for 30 days when stored at 32° to 35° F (0°-1.67° C). If frozen whole, they can be maintained for several months.

Pests and Diseases

Fig trees are prone to attack by nematodes (especially Meloidogyne spp.) and, in the tropics, have been traditionally planted close to a wall or building so that the roots can go underneath and escape damage. A heavy mulch will serve equally well. Today, control is possible with proper application of nematicides.

In India, a stem-borer, Batocera rufomaculata, feeds on the branches and may kill the tree. Lepidopterous pests in Venezuela include the fig borer, Azochis gripusalis, the larvae of which feed on the new growth, tunnel down through the trees to the roots and kill the tree. Another, called cachudo de la higuera, has prominently horned larvae up to 3 1/8 in (8 cm) long that can destroy a fig tree in a few days. There are also coleopterous insects of the genera Epitrix and Colaspis that perforate and severely damage the leaves and shoots. Scale insects include Asterolecanium sp. which attacks the bark of trees weakened by excessive humidity or prolonged drought, and the lesser enemy, Saissetia haemispherica.

A common and widespread problem is leaf rust caused by Cerotelium fici; bringing about premature leaf fall and reducing yields. It is most prevalent in rainy seasons. Leaf spot results from infection by Cylindrocladium scoparium or Cercospora fici. Fig mosaic is caused by a virus and is incurable. Affected trees must be destroyed.

The dried fruit beetle, or sour bug, Carpophilus spp., enters the fruit through the eye and leads to souring and smut caused by Aspergillus niger. This fungus may attack ripening fruits.

Food Uses

Some people peel the skin back from the stem end to expose the flesh for eating out of-hand. The more fastidious eater holds the fruit by the stem end, cuts the fruit into quarters from the apex, spreads the sections apart and lifts the flesh from the skin with a knife blade, discarding the stem and skin. Commercially, figs are peeled by immersion for 1 minute in boiling lye water or a boiling solution of sodium bicarbonate. In warm, humid climates, figs are generally eaten fresh and raw without peeling, and they are often served with cream and sugar. Peeled or unpeeled, the fruits may be merely stewed or cooked in various ways, as in pies, puddings, cakes, bread or other bakery products, or added to ice cream mix. Home owners preserve the whole fruits in sugar sirup or prepare them as jam, marmalade, or paste. Fig paste (with added wheat and corn flour, whey, sirup, oils and other ingredients) forms the filling for the well known bakery product, "Fig Newton". The fruits are sometimes candied whole commercially. In Europe; western Asia, northern Africa and California, commercial canning and drying of figs are industries of great importance.

Some drying is done in Poona, India, and there is currently interest in solar-drying in Guatemala. Usually, the fruits are allowed to fully ripen and partially dehydrate on the tree, then are exposed to sulphur fumes for about a half hour, placed out in the sun and turned daily to achieve uniform drying, and pressed flat during the 5- to 7-day process. ‘Black Mission’ and ‘Kadota’ figs are suitable for freezing whole in sirup, or sliced and layered with sugar.

Dried cull figs have been roasted and ground as a coffee substitute. In Mediterranean countries, low-grade figs are converted into alcohol. An alcoholic extract of dried figs has been used as a flavoring for liqueurs and tobacco.

Toxicity

The latex of the unripe fruits and of any part of the tree may be severely irritating to the skin if not removed promptly. It is an occupational hazard not only to fig harvesters and packers but also to workers in food industries, and to those who employ the latex to treat skin diseases.

Other Uses

Seed oil: Dried seeds contain 30% of a fixed oil containing the fatty acids: oleic, 18.99%; linoleic, 33.72%; linolenic, 32.95%; palmitic, 5.23%; stearic, 2.1 8%; arachidic, 1.05%. It is an edible oil and can be used as a lubricant.

Leaves: Fig leaves are used for fodder in India. They are plucked after the fruit harvest. Analyses show: moisture, 67.6%; protein, 4.3%; fat, 1.7%; crude fiber, 4.7%; ash, 5.3%; N-free extract, 16.4%; pentosans, 3.6%; carotene on a dry weight basis, 0.002%. Also present are bergaptene, stigmasterol, sitosterol, and tyrosine.

In southern France, there is some use of fig leaves as a source of perfume material called "fig-leaf absolute"—a dark-green to brownish-green, semi-solid mass or thick liquid of herbaceous-woody-mossy odor, employed in creating woodland scents.

Latex: The latex contains caoutchouc (2.4%), resin, albumin, cerin, sugar and malic acid, rennin, proteolytic enzymes, diastase, esterase, lipase, catalase, and peroxidase. It is collected at its peak of activity in early morning, dried and powdered for use in coagulating milk to make cheese and junket. From it can be isolated the protein-digesting enzyme ficin which is used for tenderizing meat, rendering fat, and clarifying beverages.

In tropical America, the latex is often used for washing dishes, pots and pans. It was an ingredient in some of the early commercial detergents for household use but was abandoned after many reports of irritated or inflamed hands in housewives.

Medicinal Uses: The latex is widely applied on warts, skin ulcers and sores, and taken as a purgative and vermifuge, but with considerable risk. In Latin America, figs are much employed as folk remedies. A decoction of the fruits is gargled to relieve sore throat; figs boiled in milk are repeatedly packed against swollen gums; the fruits are much used as poultices on tumors and other abnormal growths. The leaf decoction is taken as a remedy for diabetes and calcifications in the kidneys and liver. Fresh and dried figs have long been appreciated for their laxative action.

Food Value Per 100 g of Edible Portion*

FreshDried
Calories80274
Moisture77.5-86.8g23.0g
Protein1.2-1.3g4.3g
Fat0.14-0.30g1.3g
Carbohydrates17.1-20.3g69.1g
Fiber1.2-2.2 g5.6 g
Ash0.48 0.85 g2.3 g
Calcium35-78.2 mg126 mg
Phosphorus22-32.9 mg77 mg
Iron0.6-4.09 mg3.0 mg
Sodium2.0 mg34 mg
Potassium194 mg640 mg
Carotene0.013-0.195 mg—
as Vitamin A20-270 I.U.80 I.U.
Thiamine0.034-0.06 mg0.10 mg
Riboflavin0.053-0.079 mg0.10 mg
Niacin0.32-0.412 mg0.7 mg
Ascorbic Acid12.2-17.6 mg0 mg
Citric Acid0.10-0.44 mg
Note: There are small amounts of malic, boric and oxalic acids.

*According to analyses made in India, Hawaii, Central America, and by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in Washington, D.C

**** www.arkive.org/fig/ficus-carica/

**** toptropicals.com/catalog/uid/FICUS_CARICA.htm

**** en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_fig